Why did Japan and Germany join the anti-Comintern Pact in 1936 ? What were its objectives ?

What brought Hitler close to Japan was the scare of communism. Both countries feared that the Comintern, or Communist International, the organisation set up by Lenin in 1919, to sponsor communist revolutions all over the world, may start implementing the policy after Stalin's Five-Year Plans began to show positive results at home.
The Anti- Comintern Pact, which Germany and Japan signed on 25 November 1936, was superficially nothing more than a propaganda trick by which the two countries hoped to exploit the universal hatred for communism.
It is important to point out here that in the previous year, Britain, France and Italy had formed an alliance called the Stessa Front to condemn Hitler's rearmament programme, France had also taken the step strengthening diplomatic relations with the USSR fearing the re-emergence of Germany as a threat.
These two factors disturbed Hitler and therefore he stepped up efforts to win global opinion for himself as a fighter against communism. But there was a secret protocol in the Anti-Comintern Pact. It ensured that in the case of an attack by the USSR against Germany or Japan, the two nations would 'consult on what measures to take to safeguard their common interests' and also 'to take no measures which would tend to ease the situation for the USSR'. It was also agreed that neither party to the treaty would enter into bilateral treaties with the USSR without mutual consent.
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Examine the main developments in China between 1911 and 1924.

The Main developments took place in China between 1911 and 1924:

1. As in most of the countries in the 19th century, the rising middle class in China also realized the necessity of reform. Through the efforts of students and others emerged many secret clubs eager to take their country forward.
Their premier revolutionary organization, Tong Meng Hui was led by a physician Dr. Sun Yat-Sen (1866-1925), a Christian. He was greatly helped by the prosperous Chinese diaspora.

2. The revolutionary programme of Tong Meng Hui was based on three principles namely Peoples' Rules or Democracy's Peoples Nationalism and Peoples' Livelihood. They had an agenda of political reform and played a major role in the revolution of 1911, which posted the Manchu dynasty.
Sun-Yat-Sen became the first President but only for a fortnight. Their new capital was at Nanjing. His successor, General Yuan Shikai was more inclined towards the monarchical regime, and not much really changed for the better.

3. The Chinese got a fairly liberal Constitution in 1912, but it did not last long : it was suspended. This was a signal for chaos. The rural landed gentry in collaboration with the military governors known as the Warlords were now the effective rulers of China.
They were rapacious in collection of taxes and ruthless otherwise. Sun Yat Sen had to flee abroad, and he founded another political party - Ching Kuomintang (Revolutionary Party of China).

4. Yuan Shikai enjoyed the support of the eimperial powers and he banned the revolutionary organizations. China was so weak that Japan demanded its immediate compliance with some atrocious demands known as the 21 points.

5. China joined the Allied Powers in the Ist World War. The 21 demands made by Japan on China in January 1915, was an ultimatum which had to be accepted by the later within 48 hours. It not only sought practical control over Manchuria but also a virtual dominance over China.
It has been described as the first enunciation of the policy of Asia for the Asiatic as propounded by Japan. Hence it is also called a Japanese version of 'Asiatic Monroe doctrine'. China accepted most of demands. It was a big blow to her prestige. The USA kept quiet after protesting that it was violative of the 'Open door policy'.

6. After the end of the First World War, Sun Yat-Sen with the help of warlords set up a government with headquarters at Canton. Despite political instability and growing uncertainty, China was economically doing quiet well.
Modern industries were growing up in Wuhan on the Yangtze river and Shenyang in southern Manchuria and investment was flowing in Chinese middlemen called compradors helped the western companies in their marketing operations.
Certain sectors of economy related to electricity, kerosene, tobacco, looms for textile production and stem-ships showed growth and technological improvement. Progress in the educational field was another important development. Here western influence was very important.

7. One important political development of this period was the massive demonstration by the students of Peking University on 4 May 1919, known as the May Fourth movement. It spread to other parts of the country. It was directed against their politicians and foreign powers.
Besides students, the May Fourth movement also enjoyed the support of the teachers, workers and men from the business community. It started as a protest against Shantung provisions. Boycott of forigen goods was an item on their agenda too. This movement has been seen as a part of a Large Culture Movement covering the period 1916-1921.
It was a major manifestation of the resurgent Chinese nationalism. It was then that the Communist Party was set up in Shanghai in 1921 with Lenin's Comintern providing help.

8. Sun Yat-Sen gradually came under the communist influence and revised his three principles to accommodate the Chinese Communist Party in the First United Front (1924). Backed up by them, Sun Yat-Sen set up a military academy at Whampoa, near Canton. The Kuomintang Party and the Communists then set up an United Front to tackle the political problem.

9. There were frequent clashes between the foreign owned factories protected by foreign security forces and the nationalists. Scores of Chinese protesters were killed. The Communists made use of the propaganda department of the United Front Government to popularize their ideas among the working class people.
This was one of the reasons for the final break with the Nationalist Government. Finally, the Shanghai massacres (1927) led to the end of the United Front.

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Examine the role of Mao Zedong in the Chinese Communist Revolution and his strategy of revolution ?

The Role of Mao Zedong in the Chinese Communist Revolution and his strategy of Revolution :

1. The Japanese went on carving out more and more areas in China and exploited them. They set up a puppet regime in Manchuria called Manchukuo. The Communists, then led by Mao Zedong were also getting organized. Rural Soviets numbering a dozen had sprung up in various parts of China by 1930.

2. The Communists generally created sociopolitical consciousness among the peasantry, initiated much needed land reforms, and generated a new atmosphere in this agrasian society.
There were armed clashes between the landed gentry and the peasants inspired by Maoist ideology. Mao had deviated from the Soviet Communist Party line (Lilisan).

3. Mao gradually consolidated his position and realized that in a less industrialized society like that of China, the peasantry alone can play a revolutionary role. He moved into the interior regions of China and set up his authority known as the 'Jiangxi Soviet'.
There were series of armed clashes between Chiang's army and Mao's men in 1934. The Communists could not stand the attack and then Mao with 1,50,000 followers had to beat a hasty retreat to the Yenan province.
It is estimated that only 30,000 of them ultimately survived and reached their destination. This retreat came to be known in the Communist folklore as the 'Long March'.

4. Chaing, then faced a rebellion from his troops, who wanted him to patch up with the Communists and put up an united challenge to the rampaging Japanese army. In fact, Chiang was even help a prisoner (December 1936) by his men. Chiang realized the urgency of the problem and confronted the Japanese but the Chinese were crushed by December 1937.
The Japanese captured the Kuomintang capital, Nanjing, after dealing ruthlessly with the Chinese-both their military and civilians. Chiang moved his capital to Chongqing. Mao had emerged as the undisputed leader of the Communists. Chiang secured the American support after 1941 while Communists consolidated themselves.

5. The Communist Party, on the other hand, was a party of workers and peasants. In the areas under Communist Party’s control, the estates of landlords had been expropriated and the land distributed among the peasants.
Because of the policies pursued by the Communist Party, it gradually had won over millions of Chinese people to its side. The Communist Party had also organized a huge army called the People's Liberation Army. After the defeat of Japan and the driving out of the Japanese forces from China the Civil War again broke out. The Government of the United State gave massive aid to Chiang kai Shek, but by 1949 his armies were completely routed.
With the remnants of his troops, Chaing kai-Shek went to Taiwan (Formosa), an island which had been occupied by Japan after she had defeated China in 1895. On Ist October, 1949, the People's Republic of China was proclaimed and the Communist Party of China under the leadership of Mao Zedong came to power.

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How Japan re-emerged as a global economic power after its defeat ?


1. Japan's attempt to carve out a colonial empire ended with its defeat by the Allied forces. It has been argued that nuclear bombs were dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki to shorten the war. But others think the immense destruction and suffering it caused were unnecessary.
Under the US-led Occupation (1945-47) Japan was demilitarised and a new constitution introduced. This had Article 9, the so-called ‘no war clause’ that renounces the use of war as an instrument of state policy. Agrarian reforms, the re- establishment of trade unions and an attempt to dismantle the zaibatsu or large monopoly houses that dominated the Japanese economy were also carried out.
Political parties were revived and the first post-war elections held in 1946 where women voted for the first time.

2. The rapid rebuilding of the Japanese economy after its shattering defeat was called a post war 'miracle'. But it was more than that it was firmly rooted in its long history.
The constitution was democratised only now, but the Japanese had a historic tradition of popular struggles and intellectual engagement with how to broaden political participation. The social cohesion of the pre-war years was strengthened, allowing for a close working of the government, bureaucracy and industry.
US support, as well as the demand created by the Korean and the Vietnamese wars also helped the Japanese economy.

3. The 1964 Olympics held in Tokyo marked a symbolic coming of age. In much the same way the network of high- speed Shinkansen or bullet trains, started in 1964, which ran at 200 miles per hour (now it is 300 miles per hour) have come to represent the ability of the Japanese to use advanced technologies to produce better and cheaper goods.

4. The 1960s saw the growth of civil society movements as industrialisation had been pushed with utter disregard to its effect on health and enviornment. Cadmium poisoning, which led to painful disease, was an early indicator, followed by mercury poisoning in Minamata in the 1960s and problems caused by air pollution in the early 1970s.
Grass-roots pressure groups began to demand recognition of these problems as well as compensation for the victims. Government action and new legal regulations helped to improve conditions.

5. From the mid 1980s there has been an increasing decline in interest in environmental issues as Japan enacted some of the strictest environmental controls in the world.
Today, as a developed country it faces the challenge of using its political and technological capabilities to maintain its position as a leading world power.

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What did the Western powers do to counter the aggressive acts of Japan, Italy and Germany between 1931 and 1938 ?


The fascist power like Germany, Italy and Japan followed a policy of aggressive militarism against other countries between 1931 and 1938.


1. In 1931 Japan attacked China and captured Manchuria. England, France and USA kept mum because they thought that Japan could be used to weaken China and U.S.S.R.


2. In 1935, Italy invaded Ethiopia. The League of Nations condemned Italy's role and imposed economic sanctions against her. However, no concrete step was taken to punish Italy.

3. The fascist forces in Italy and Germany supported General Franco to topple the Popular Democratic Government in Spain backed by U.S.S.R. Britain and France did not intervene. Ultimately, the fascist forces toppled the democracy and General Franco established his dictatorship in 1939.

4. Germany captured Austria in 1938 and annexed whole of Czechoslovakia. England and France did nothing to check Germany.
The Second World War could have been averted if the Western countries had not followed the policy of appeasement.
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