Discuss the evidence of craft production in early historic cities. In what ways is this different from the evidence from Harappan cities?
Unlike Harappan civilization archaeologist were able to gather different varieties of artefacts, they are as follows:
(i) Evidence of bowls and dishes of very fine type of pottery with a glossy finish were found. These pottery is known as the Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW). These fine earthern pottery was probably used by rich people in towns.
(iii) In early cities ornaments, tools, weapons, vessels, figurines, made of a wide range of materials such as gold, silver, copper, bronze, glass, shell and terracotta were also found. Moreover here we find the usage of iron in abundance.
Differences:
(i) Most importantly, evidence of material artefatcs is abundant, and we find that unlike Harappan civilization material used to make crafts are varied. And there is fine production of pottery with glossy finish which we do not find in Harappan civilization.
(ii) There are artefacts and crafts made in iron, the metal which was not know during bronze age Harappan civilization.
Compare and contrast the list of things given to the Pandyan chief (Source 3) with those produced in the village of Danguna (Source 8). Do you notice any similarities or differences?
List some of the problems faced by epigraphists.
Some of the problems faced by epigraphist are
1. Technical problems- a. Letters are very faintly engraved, and thus reconstructions are uncertain.
b. Inscriptions are damaged or letters missing.
c. It is not always easy to be sure about the exact meaning of the words used in inscriptions.
d. Not all have been deciphered, published and translated.
2. No overall picture- N everything that we may consider politically or economically significant was necessarily recorded in inscriptions. And the content of inscriptions almost invariably projects the perspective of the person(s) who commissioned them.
Describe the salient features of Mahajanapadas.
The main features of the Mahajanapadas are as follow:
1. Mahajanapadas were forms of early states and were mostly ruled by kings. However there were oligarchy also known as Gana and Sanghas, where group of people shared power and were collectively known as Rajas.
2. Mahajanapadas had its own capital and it was fortified. It was where the king lived.
3. Mahajanapadas developed gradually a standing armies and bureaucracy.
4. There was the system of taxation, taxes were collected fromt the masses.
5. There developed a notion where king was supposed to come from Kshatriya, with its roles and duties.
How do historians reconstruct the lives of ordinary people?
When we look into the sources of the past ordinary people has rarely left any account of their life's experience or thoughts. Hence it becomes very difficult for the scholars to construct their life, however scholars have tried various methods to understand ordinary people by:
1. Examining stories contained in anthologies such as the Jatakas and the Panchatantra. Although stories this tales tends to tell us lots about the ordinary people.
2. Different types of foodgrains and animal bones have been found during excavation. It gives us information about dietary practices of people.
3. Remains of houses and pots inform us about their daily and household life.
4. There is a mention of different types of crafts and craftsmen on certain inscriptions. It is a very good source of knowing economic life of people.
5. Some inscriptions and scriptures inform us about king-subject relations, different types of taxes and miseries or happiness of people.
6. Changing agricultural tools and equipments throw some light on changing life of ordinary people.