(a) Many zamindaris were auctioned because the zamindars failed to pay the revenue demand on time. This was because the initial demands were very high.

(b) Moreover this high demand was imposed at a time when prices of agricultural produce were depressed making it difficult for the ryot to pay their duces to the zamindar.

(c) Thirdly revenue had to be paid punctually regardless of the harvest. According to the Sunset law if the zamindar did not pay by sunset of the specified date his estate was likely to be auctioned.

(d) Initially the Permanent Settlement limited the power of the zamindar to exploit the peasantry and also reduced his powers. His troops were disbanded, custom duties were abolished and their power to meet out local justice was curbed.

(e) This made it difficult for him to assert his power over the peasants and jotedars to ensure timely payment. Rent collection remained a perennial problem. Sometimes the ryots and jotedars deliberately delayed payment to get the zamindar into trouble. This delayed the zamindar’s payment to the state and often led to his zamindari being auctioned.

When zamindars were in crisis in the eighteenth century, a group of rich peasants consolidated its position in the villages of Bengal. This class of rich peasants came to be known as jotedars. They had a control over vast areas of land. Sometimes they had even a control on many thousand acres of land. They even controlled local trade and moneylending. They exercised immense power over the poor cultivators of the region. They had even become more powerful than the zamindars. The following reasons were responsible for their strong position :

(i) They lived in villages. So they had a lot of influence on many villagers.

(ii) They opposed the efforts of the zamindars to increase the jama of the village.

(iii) They mobilised ryots to deliberately delay payments of revenue to the zamindars.

(iv) They controlled the local trade and moneylending.

(v) They had a control over several areas of land. They even purchased land when the estates of the zamindars were being auctioned for failure to make payment of the revenue.

The Paharias response:

(a) The settling of the Santhals on the peripheries of the Rajmahal hills were initiatlly resisted by the Paharias.

(b) But ultimately they were forced to withdraw deeper into the hills.

(c) They were now confined to the more barren and rocky upper hills. This severely affected their lives.

(d) Their economy was dependent on shifting cultivation which was no longer feasible leading to their impoverishment.

(e) As forests began to be cleared to facilitate cultivation the Paharia hunters also faced problems.

Thus the lifestyle of the Paharias underwent a great change with the coming of the outsiders.

(a) By 1832, the Santhals had settled in the Damin-i-Koh area. Santhal settlements now expanded rapidly. Forests were rapidly cleared for agriculture. As cultivation expanded the Company got more revenue.

(b) But the Santhals gradually became dissatisfied. They found they were not getting their due and were being exploited. The sate was levying heavy taxes on them.

(c) Moneylenders charged them high rates of interest and took over their land when they were unable to pay.

(d) zamindars also had began to increase their hold over their area. Thus they revolted against the exploitation of the zamindar, moneylenders and the state.

Following were the main reasons of anger of the Deccan ryots against the moneylenders:

(i) Moneylenders refused to extend loans to ryots. Ryots felt that moneylenders were insensitive to their plight and miserable conditions.

(ii) Moneylenders were disobeying the traditional norms of rural areas. For example amount of interest could not exceed the principal amount. But in one of the case moneylender had charged more than Rs. 2,000 as interest on the principal amount of Rs. 100.

(iii) Unpaid amount of interest was also being included in new loan deeds so that moneylender could remain away from the hands of law and his amount remain as it is.

(iv) No receipt was given to peasant in case of repayment of loan.

(v) Ryots also complained of moneylenders manipulating laws and forging accounts.