“Brahmanical norms regarding marriage and occupations were not always followed in ancient times.” Give arguments in support of this statement.

(a) Marriage was considered to be a means of obtaining sons. This often meant carefully regulating the lives of young girls and women, to ensure that they were married at the ‘right’ time and to the ‘right’ person. As a result kanyadana or gift of a daughter in marriage was considered an important religious duty of the father.

(b) Manusmriti is consider the most important Dharmasutras and Dharmashastra it was compiled between C 200 BCE 200 CE. This laid down rules governing social life along with some other things.

(c) During the Mahabharata period social differences prevailed but integration and contestation took place within the frameworks of caste.

(i) If we turn from the world of prescription to practice, there are indications that brahmanical ideas were not uniformly implemented. According to the shastras, only Kshatriyas could be kings. However, several important ruling lineages seem to have had different origins. The social origin of the Mauryas has been hotly debated. While later Buddhist texts suggested they were Kshatriyas, brahmanical texts described them as being of ‘low’ origin.

(ii) The Brahmanas evolved two or three strategies for enforcing social norms of Varna. One, as we have just seen, was to assert that the varna order was created by the gods. Second, they advised kings to ensure that these norms were followed within their kingdoms. And third, they attempted to convince people that their status was determined by the social category into which they were born.

(iii) The Dharmasutras and Dharmashastras contained rules about the ideal ‘occupations’ of the four categories or varnas.

(a) Brahmanas were supposed to study and teach the Vedas, perform sacrifices and get sacrifices performed, give and receive gifts.

(b) Kshatriyas were to engage in warfare, protect people and administer justice, study the Vedas, get sacrifices performed, and make gifts.

(c) The last three ‘occupations’ were also assigned to the vaishyas, who were additonally expected to engage in agriculture, pastoralism and trade.

(d) Shudras were assigned only on occupation-that of serving the three ‘higher’ varnas.