Nationalist feelings were widespread among middle-class Germans, who in 1848 tried to unite the different regions of the German confederation into a nation-state governed by an elected parliament. This liberal initiative to nation- building was, however, repressed by the combined forces of the monarchy and the military, supported by the large landowners of Prussia. From then on, Prussia took on the leadership of the movement for national unification.

Its chief minister, Otto von Bismarck, was the architect of this process carried out with the help of the Prussian army and bureaucracy. Three wars over seven years- with Austria, Denmark and France- ended in Prussian victory and completed the process of German unification.

In January 1871, the Prussian king, William I, was proclaimed German Emperor in ceremony held at Versailles

OR

The infrastructural projects developed by the French colonisers in Vietnam were:

(i) Building canals and draining lands in the Mekong delta to increase cultivation.

(ii) The vast system of irrigation works-canal and earthworks to increase rice production.

(iii) Construction of trans-Indo-China rail network to link the northern and southern parts of China and Vietnam.

Non-cooperation movement slowed down in the cities for the following reasons:

(i) Khadi cloth was more expensive than mass-produced mill cloth and people could not afford to buy it.

(ii) The boycott of British institutions posed a problem as there were no alternative Indian institutions to replace the British ones.

(iii) These were slow to come up, so the students and teachers began trickling back to government schools and lawyers joined back work in courts.

Italy had a long history of political fragmentation. Italians were scattered over several dynasties as well as the multi-national Habsburg Empire. The past revolutionary uprisings, which failed, prompted King Victor Emmanuel II from Sardinia-Piedmont to unify the Italian states through war.

(i) In 1859, Giuseppe Garibaldi headed a revolution against Austria in an alliance with France.

(ii) In 1860, the forces marched into South Italy and the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies and drove out the Spanish rulers.

iii) In 1861, Victor Emanuel was proclaimed as the king of united Italy and Rome was declared the capital of Italy.

                                                                    OR

The steps taken by the French to develop cultivation in the Mekong delta were:

(i) Build canals and draining lands to increase cultivation.

(ii) Used of forced labour to build canals and earthworks.

(iii) Increased rice production and allowed the export of rice.

Victor Emmanuel II 

OR

It led by angry officers of the Imperial Court against French control and the spread of Christianity in Vietnam.